Abigail Adams

Throughout her life, Abigail Adams (1744-1818) was a humanitarian, activist, and leader. Adams advocated for gender equality in public education and the need to pay attention to the social, political, and educational needs of women. She also firmly believed in the necessity for the emancipation of African Americans from slavery and passionately advocated for dissolving the political union with Great Britain. She married John Adams, a fellow Massachusetts Bay colonist, in 1764. In 1797, she became first lady when Adams took office after the end of George Washington’s second term.

Early Life

Abigail was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1744 to William and Elizabeth Smith. Her father, William Smith, was a Congregationalist minister. Formal education for girls was uncommon in Abigail’s time. However, William Smith taught his middle daughter to read informally. He exposed Abigail to books about history, philosophy, politics, law, and more. This inspired her lifelong support for women’s education. 

Involvement in the American Revolution

Abigail voiced her political views at various times. In 1775 she was appointed to the Massachusetts Colony General Court in order to question women accused of being Loyalists. This is considered to be one of the first political roles held by an American woman. Despite her outspoken nature, Abigail often began her political commentary with an apology for defying her role as a woman. However, it was in her role as her husband’s unofficial advisor that Abigail made her greatest contributions to the early American nation.

Revolutionary Era and Political Partnership

John’s official political role began with his appointment to the Massachusetts Legislature in 1770. As John became more politically established, Abigail supported him from the sidelines. She often voiced her support for American independence, abolition, and women’s education. When John paused his law practice after being elected to the Continental Congress in 1774, Abigail continued to raise their children on a reduced salary.

During this time, she managed the family’s properties, investments, and contracts largely on her own. She also provided much-needed encouragement to her husband. Abigail urged John and Congress to consider the material conditions of Bostonians, many of whom had lost their homes and jobs during the Revolutionary War. Besides this, Abigail created detailed reports of political events in her letters to John, which he and his fellow congressmen relied on. He even quoted one of her letters in a speech to Congress.

It is believed that Abigail and John Adams exchanged more than 1,100 letters on topics ranging from governing and politics to women's rights. Her firm views on American independence were expressed in a 1775 letter, explaining: "Let us separate, they are unworthy to be our Brethren. Let us renounce them. . .."¹

Abigail Adams first met George Washington shortly after he took command of the Continental Army. At first, Adams had hesitations about Washington as an enslaver and member of the Virginia elite. However, after meeting, Adams wrote her husband that she was "struck with General Washington," and that his appointment was received with "universal satisfaction." Adams further explained that Washington was marked by "Dignity with ease. . .the Gentleman and Soldier look agreeably blended in him."²

A passionate advocate for the cause of American liberty, Adams was uniquely able to express herself clearly at a time when women received little education. In a series of letters written beginning in 1776, Adams boldly argued for women’s rights. After learning that her husband would serve on the committee that would draft the Declaration of Independence, Abigail reminded him to: "Remember the Ladies... ."³ John Adams did not follow his wife's advice. However, his political agenda was shaped as much by his own opinions as by his valuable discussions with Abigail.

Diplomatic Companion

In 1778, Abigail’s husband, along with her son, John Quincy Adams, traveled to France. John intended to form an alliance with the nation. Abigail remained at home in her newly formed country. In 1783, John took on the role of creating a trade agreement with Great Britain while in Paris. This time, Abigail and her daughter of the same name joined him. As a diplomatic companion, Abigail made connections with important Frenchmen and women. In 1785, John was chosen to be United States ambassador to Great Britain. He was joined by Abigail, who socialized with key political figures, and she met King George III.

Tensions between the American couple and important British figures made these relations difficult at times. As an act of patriotism and protest, Abigail vowed in 1786 not to enter a British court again unless absolutely necessary. Despite her absence in court, Abigail became involved in public life. She expressed her political opinions, along with growing patriotism inspired by her experiences in Europe. Also, at this time, Abigail supplied Thomas Jefferson with detailed reports of events in America and briefly cared for Jefferson’s daughter Martha.

Role as Second Lady

John Adams served as vice president from 1789 to 1797. During this period, Abigail cared for her family. Her friendship with the First Lady Martha Washington continued to develop and they often socialized together. Abigail admired Martha’s commitment to domestic life. While ill with fever in 1799, Abigail wrote Martha about her pains. At the end of the letter, she said, “To a heart less benevolent I should apologize for relating my grief, but I know that you, Madam, can sympathize with those who mourn as well as rejoice in their felicity.”⁴ This letter shows the closeness of their friendship, which was built on similar experiences.

Role as First Lady

John became president of the United States in 1797. It was an uncertain time for the country. Tensions with France were high due to America’s signing of the Jay Treaty with Britain in 1795. Things were also uncertain for Abigail, who was in weak health. When John travelled to Philadelphia for his role, Abigail managed their farm independently. Eventually, Abigail moved to Philadelphia, the temporary capital, in order to support her husband’s presidency. In 1800, their family moved to Washington, D.C., the nation’s new capital, becoming the first presidential family to do so. She continued to manage the family’s finances.

In addition, she sent letters and articles supportive of John’s policies to newspapers for publication, especially in light of his unpopular presidency. She continued to be John’s most trusted confidante. She urged Congress to declare war on France, despite this being an unpopular position at the time. When Adams did not win his second bid for the presidency, they returned to their home in Quincy, Massachusetts.

Legacy

Today people continue to recognize Abigail Adams for her unique and important role in American history, particularly in the founding era of the early American republic. She is remembered on a ten-dollar gold coin in the First Spouse coin series by the United States Mint. She continues to be the subject of numerous articles and books.

Abigail Adams has been associated with the concept of Republican Motherhood. This was a post-revolutionary belief stating that women had a civic duty to raise patriotic and politically informed children. Though the term was coined after her lifetime, Abigail demonstrated its core values in her role as wife and mother. Although she was politically outspoken, she believed that a woman’s first duty was to home and family.

Abigail was buried at United First Parish Church in Quincy, Massachusetts upon her death in 1818.

Elizabeth Bissell Miller University of Missouri, revised by Sophia Dotterweich 25 June 2025

Notes:

1. “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 12 November 1775,” Founders Online, National Archives.

2. “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 16 July 1775,” Founders Online, National Archives.

3. “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March 1776,” in Adams Papers, National Archive.

4. “Abigail Adams to Martha Washington, 25 June 1791,” in The Papers of Martha Washington, The Papers of George Washington Digital Edition.

Bibliography:

Bober, Natalie S. Abigail Adams: Witness to a Revolution. New York: Aladdin Paperbacks, 1995.

Gelles, Edith B. Abigail Adams: A Writing Life. New York: Routledge, 2002.

------.  "Abigail Adams: Domesticity and the American Revolution." The New England Quarterly 1979, 500-521.

Holton, Woody. Abigail Adams. New York: Free Press, 2009.

Levin, Phyllis Lee. Abigail Adams: A Biography. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001.

Shuffelton, Frank, ed. The Letters of John and Abigail Adams. New York: Penguin Books, 2003.